Light microscopes are one of the most basic and important pieces of laboratory equipment found in any laboratory. They allow researchers to view small organisms, cells, and other specimens that are too tiny to see with the naked eye. Light microscopes work by using glass lenses to magnify images of a specimen placed on a glass slide. Magnification ranges from 40X to 1000X or more, depending on the individual microscope model. Upgraded models often include features like built-in illumination, mounts for attaching cameras for capturing digital images, and options for things like phase contrast or polarized light capabilities.

Electron Microscopes

Electron microscopes take magnification and resolution to the next level by replacing visible light with a beam of electrons. This allows them to see objects as small as atoms and molecules. There are two main types - transmission electron microscopes (TEM) and scanning electron microscopes (SEM). TEMs use a high-energy beam of electrons to illuminate the ultra-thin specimen. The beam is transmitted through specimen and interacts with it as it passes through. SEMs scan the surface of the specimen with a focused beam of electrons. Images are formed from signals produced by electrons interacting with the atoms on the sample surface. Both allow magnifications of over one million times. However, electron microscopes require high vacuum conditions and other specialized equipment like electron guns or detectors making them much larger and more expensive than basic light microscopes.

Centrifuges

Centrifuges are essential for separating components of biological liquids like blood or tissue homogenates. They use centrifugal force to separate mixtures of particles or macromolecules of different densities. Common centrifuges include benchtop models as well as high speed refrigerated and ultracentrifuges. Applications include preparing blood serum or plasma, isolating subcellular organelles and vesicles, precipitating macromolecules like nucleic acids or proteins, and pelleting bacterial cells. Speed and capabilities depend on model, with basic centrifuges spinning a few thousand rpm while specialized ultracentrifuges can reach over 100,000 rpm. Force at these speeds allows separation and purification of components down to the nanometer scale.

Incubators

Precise temperature control is critical for growing cell and bacterial cultures or incubating chemical and biological reactions. Incubators provide a stable, hypoxic (low oxygen) environment for this purpose. Basic cell culture incubators maintain humidified conditions at 37°C, ideal for mammalian cell growth. Larger microbiology incubators accommodate roll-top bottles and plates with adjustable racks. More advanced incubators feature CO2/O2 gas mixing for culturing eukaryotic cells. Other options like shaking platforms improve aeration for growing aerobic microbes. Incubators also enable precise temperature regulation for biochemical assays, enzyme activity tests, and development of fertilized eggs or embryos. Some can accommodate multiple racks of samples for higher throughput.

Autoclaves

Autoclaves are used to sterilize laboratory equipment and liquids through high pressure saturated steam. This process completely eliminates all forms of microbial life, including spores. Benchtop autoclaves are tabletop units suitable for sterilizing glassware, media, and other small loads. Larger gravity displacement or prevacuum autoclaves accommodate bigger chamber sizes and loads. Autoclaving is necessary prior to cell culture or microbiological work to sterilize reagents, media, glassware, loops, plates and any materials entering the sterile lab environment. It enables repeatable experimental conditions by eliminating contaminants. Advanced autoclaves feature temperature and pressure monitors as well as steam generator components for automated cycles.

Plastic Labware

An incredible variety of plastic labware pieces are essential for modern life science research and healthcare testing. Common plastic consumables include pipette tips, centrifuge tubes, culture plates, flasks, beakers, funnels, trays, bottles, and containers. Many are sterile and disposable to prevent cross-contamination. Popular resins like polyethylene offer chemical resistance, clarity and affordable prices. Specialized surfaces enhance cell growth, such as low-evaporation polystyrene for multi-well plates. Other labware utilizes vented caps, filter bottoms or graduated measurements. Colors help differentiate samples during experiments. While simple, inexpensive and disposable plasticware enables rapid experimental setups while maintaining sterility in cells and microbiology labs.

Hot Plates and Stirrers

These simple and versatile pieces of equipment enable controlled heating of laboratory solutions. Magnetic hot plates provide analog heat control useful for processes like melting solids or maintaining solutions at constant temperatures below their boiling points. Adjustable hot plates pair with stirring capabilities for combining or dissolving mixture components under vigorous and uniform mixing. Heating and mixing enable functions like enzymatic or chemical reactions requiring thermal activation. Some models support multiple stirring positions or include hot/cold plates for varied liquid handling needs. Magnetic stirrers also operate independently to offer portable and programmable agitation without heating functions. Together, hot plates and stirrers enable controlled thermal manipulation of samples.

Spectrophotometers and Microplate Readers

Quantifying chemical components of solutions down to trace levels relies on instruments like ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometers and microplate readers. Spectrophotometers measure light absorbance or transmittance through a solution containing an analyte. They quantify concentration based on theBeer-Lambert law relating absorbance to path length and molar absorptivity. Common applications analyze things like nucleic acids, proteins, small molecules or enzyme activity. Microplate readers automate this task for multi-well plates used in high-throughput screening and diagnostic assays. Together these instruments form a core technique of analytical biochemistry by enabling sensitive and reproducible quantification of unknown samples.

Balances and Pipettes

Accurately measuring and transferring tiny reagent volumes underpins much of modern biomedical research and testing. Analytical balances provide precision to parts-per-million for weighing dry chemical components or samples. Common models range from top-loading to analytical with readabilities to 0.1 milligram.

In Summary, electronic pipettes automate volume delivery, reducing error through calibrated, interchangeable tips. Options cover microliter and nanoliter scales using positive-displacement or air-displacement mechanisms. Specialized equipment includes multichannel pipettes for